Given a mathematical group G and a normal subgroup N of G, the factor group, or quotient group, of G over N can be thought of as arising from G by "collapsing" the subgroup N to the identity element. It is written as G/N.
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2 Examples 3 Properties |
Formally, G/N is the set of all left cosets of N in G, i.e.
Generally, if two subsets S and T of G are given, we define their product as:
Definition
Note since N has to be normal, then the right cosets will do also.
This operation on subsets of G is associative, and if N is normal, then it turns the set G/N into a group:
(aN)(bN) = (aN)(Nb) = a((NN)b) = a(Nb) = a(bN) = (ab)N
-- which establishes closure. From the same calculation, it follows that eN=N is the identity element of G/N and that a-1N is the inverse of aN.
Consider the group of integers Z (using addition as operation) and the subgroup 2Z consisting of all even integers. This is a normal subgroup because Z is abelian. There are only two cosets, the even and the odd numbers, and Z / 2Z is therefore isomorphic to the cyclic group with two elements.
As another abelian example, consider the group of real numbers R (again with addition) and the subgroup Z of integers.
The cosets of Z in R are of the form a + Z\', with 0 ≤ a < 1 a real number. Adding such cosets is done by adding the corresponding real numbers, and subtracting 1 if the result is greater than or equal to 1. The factor group R/Z is isomorphic to S1, the group of complex numbers of absolute value 1 using multiplication as operation. An isomorphism is given by f(a + Z') = exp(a 2πi) (see Euler's identity).
If G is the group of invertible 3-by-3 real matrices, and N is the subgroup of 3-by-3 real matrices with determinant 1, then N is normal in G (since it is the kernel of the group homomorphism det), and G/N is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers.
Trivially, G/G is isomorphic to the group of order 1, and G/{e} is isomorphic to G.
When G/N is finite, its order is equal to [G:N], the index of N in G. If G is finite, this is also equal to the order of G divided by the order of N; this may explain the notation.
There is a "natural" surjective group homomorphism π : G → G/N, sending each element g of G to the coset of N to which g belongs, that is: π(g) = gN. The application π is sometimes called canonical projection. Its kernel is N.
There is a bijective correspondence between the subgroups of G that contain N and the subgroups of G/N; if H is a subgroup of G containing N, then the corresponding subgroup of G/N is π(H). This correspondence holds for normal subgroups of G and G/N as well, and is formalized in the lattice theorem.
Several important properties of factor groups are recorded in the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms and the isomorphism theorems.
If G is abelian, nilpotent or solvable, then so is G/N.
If G is cyclic or finitely generated, then so is G/N.
Every group is isomorphic to a group of the form F/N, where F is a free group and N is a normal subgroup of F.Examples
Properties
